Athletics Among the Ancients
By Michael Poliakoff, Ph.D. | June 16, 2022
Contest, what the Greeks called agon, is integral to growth. It is a proving ground for such qualities
as perseverance, courage, fortitude. The number of major mythological, religious, and political figures
who were successful athletes is striking: in Greek myth, Zeus outwrestles his father Kronos for dominion over the universe; Theseus, the most important hero in Athenian legend was considered the patron of wrestling; Herakles was, not surprisingly, a powerful athlete; so also the Ptolemies represented themselves as athletes; the Byzantine ruler Basil I was a formidable wrestler; and contemporary sources tell of Abraham Lincoln’s wrestling prowess. The long history of athletics and athletic competition offer insights that will help schools and society in our time make wise choices and embrace practices that strengthen both soul and body.
One of the very oldest depictions of athletic struggle occurs in Genesis: “Jacob was left alone. And a man wrestled with him until the break of dawn. When he saw that he had not prevailed against him, he
wrenched Jacob’s hip and its socket, so that the socket of his hip was strained as he wrestled with
him. Then he said, ‘Let me go, for dawn is breaking.’ But he answered, ‘I will not let you go, unless you bless me.’ Said the other, ‘What is your name?’
He replied, ‘Jacob.’ Said he, ‘Your name shall no longer be called Jacob, but Israel, for you have
striven with God and man and have prevailed.’” The patriarch-to-be cannot assume his new name and
role until he proves himself in a rite of passage. In the yet-older Epic of Gilgamesh, the hero does not
leave his dissolute practices and gain full stature until he wrestles the formidable Enkidu. Plato gives us further insight why the virtue, or in Greek arete, of an athlete is so akin to those virtues
that improve the individual and the wider community. In the Laws, the philosopher describes the Olympic pentathlon victor Ikkos of Tarentum: “Don’t we all know of Ikkos of Tarentum because of the reputation he gained at Olympia and other contests, which he won through his competitiveness, skill, and the manly self-control of his soul … we hear the same about Krison, Astylos, Diopompos, and many others.” Aristotle noted how enduring the pain of boxing shows how a person sacrifices the pleasures of life for an important cause. The orator Dio Chrysostom of the second century CE praised the boxer Melankomas, “Yet indeed the most amazing thing for a man was to be undefeated not only by his opponents, but also by toil, heat, appetite, and sexual urges.” An inscription for the successful athlete Kallikrates explains his life with the famous story of Herakles at the crossroads, who shuns the soft road of pleasure and takes the hard road of virtue. The theme of the virtuous, self-controlled athlete spans centuries of Greek civilization.
But the Greeks also knew well the dangers of over-training. Aristotle noted that few boys who win in the boys’ division return to win as men because of the severity of their training (Politics 8. 4 1339a). For a
contemporary example, we might think of the sad episode of Russian skaters, especially Kamila Valieva, at the 2022 Winter Olympics, but the phenomenon is all too common. The second-century CE physician Galen emphatically denounced over-training, and quoted from the Hippocratic writings: “a healthy condition is better than the unnatural state of athletes.” Even in contest, moderation is vital. Later, the Jews and Christians, generally suspicious of the excesses of Greco-Roman physical culture, found inspiration in the physical strength and virtuous character of successful athletes. Consider Paul,
presenting himself as an athlete of the Holy Spirit: “Do you not know that all the runners in the stadium
run, but only one receives a prize. Run so that you win the prize … I box not like a shadow boxer. I bruise my body and bring it into subjugation.”
The first century Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria similarly understood that there are higher
contests than sport: “Now the Olympic contest which alone can rightly be called sacred the inhabitants of Elis do not hold, but it is the contest for the gaining of divine, truly Olympian virtues.” Friedrich Nietzsche was accurate in his understanding of the way in which contest spurred the ancient Greeks to high achievement: “Every talent must unfold itself in fighting: that is the command of Hellenic popular pedagogy, whereas modern educators dread nothing more than the unleashing of so-called ambition.” The educator’s task is then to find the balance between the productive ambition that fuels the will to win and cooperative virtues that are essential for the community. Grantland Rice’s sentiment, “It matters not who won or lost but how you played the game,” would have been unthinkable in the Hellenic world, but even in the fiercely competitive world of Greek sport we find the recognition of the higher purpose, which is why sport has such an important place in Plato’s vision of a better society.
To answer the difficult question of balance, I must give the last word to the historian of the Middle
Ages and Rector of the University of Leiden, Johan Huizinga. His book Homo Ludens, The Play Element in Civilization, written in 1938, is a reminder that humility and mastery of the self are the bedrock of a good society: “Play, we began by saying, lies outside morals. In itself, it is neither good nor bad. But if we have to decide whether an action to which our will impels us is a serious duty or is licit as play, our moral conscience will at once provide the touchstone. As soon as truth and justice, compassion and forgiveness have part in our resolve to act, our anxious question loses all meaning.” If you are a regular reader of VIRTUE magazine, it is safe to assume that you think long and deeply about the effect on the mind and heart of both formal schooling and informal activities. Revisiting the experience and wisdom of centuries past can help us to focus on what is sound, character-building practice in the world of sport and what is not. We have everything to gain by making wise choices for ourselves and for a rising generation.
Michael Poliakoff is the president of the American Council of Trustees and Alumni, where he has served with distinction for a dozen years. Rhodes Scholar, prolific author, and award-winnning teacher, Poliakoff’s previous service includes senior roles at the University of Colorado, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the National Council on Teacher Quality, the American Academy for Liberal Education, and the Pennsylvania Department of Education. He also serves as an Academic Advisor to the Institute.
Image: Mosaic depicting athletes wearing wreaths(Roman Era) — colored tile, located at Archaeological Museum of Olympia (Greece)